The end of the Occidental Roman Empire in Hispania
From the end of the 3rd century, the decline of the Roman Empire was an unstoppable reality. Already in the time of Diocletian (284-305 AD), the territory was divided between two emperors and two caesars for better governance, but it was with the death of Emperor Theodosius I (378-395 AD) that the Empire was definitively divided into two parts: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire, the latter better known as the Byzantine Empire.
Taking advantage of the Roman military decline, and pushed by the warlike Huns, the pressure from barbarian peoples from the east was ever increasing, and the emperors were forced to make pacts with them, even allowing them to settle in different areas of the Empire.
We do not know what became of Legio VII as a military unit: we only have indirect evidence that it may have continued to operate throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries. We have a document from the beginning of the 5th century, called “ Notitia Dignitatum ,” which lists and details the troops of the entire Empire. Upon arriving in Hispania, Legio VII appears established in its usual camp (“ Legione ”) in the province of Gallaecia, and under the command of the Legion Prefect: “ Hispaniae: In provincia Gallaecia: Praefectus legionis septimae geminae, Legione.”
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| Alleged shield of the Legio VII in the Notitia Dignitatum |
It was still considered a frontier legion, although the lack of sources prevents us from knowing whether the Astures were still rebellious or not. In any case, the real danger was the barbarians and their increasingly deep incursions into the Empire, which forced towns like Legio , Asturica, and Bérgidum to build or improve their walls. It was during this period of history that Legio grew from a camp into a city.
The barbarian invasions
In 409, three barbarian peoples crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Hispania: the Suebi, the Vandals, and the Alans. They apparently encountered no resistance, which suggests the possibility that, despite what the Notitia states, the Legio VII was no longer operational as a military unit. These invaders looted and pillaged especially the north of the Iberian Peninsula, which was seen as a sign of the Apocalypse by Hydatius, Bishop of Aquae Flaviae (Chaves), who is the author of the only chronicle of this era: the “ Chronicon ”.
The Suebi, from the Baltic region, numbered around 30,000 men and were led by their king, Hermeric (409-438). The Vandals, also of Baltic origin, were divided into the Asding Vandals and the Siling Vandals, and although some contemporaries estimated their strength at 80,000 men, the actual number was probably much lower. The Asding Vandals were led by Gunderic, and the Siling Vandals by Fridibald, although the two factions eventually united in 417. Finally, the Alans came from the farthest away, being Iranian. According to Hydatius, led by their king, Atax, they dominated both the Suebi and the Vandals, although they would later merge with the latter.
These three peoples ravaged the countryside at will, although Hydatius says they were unable to capture the main cities, leading us to assume that Legio and Asturica withstood their attacks. In 411, they divided all of Hispania among themselves: the Asding Vandals and Suebi took Gallaecia, the Alans (the most powerful, according to Hydatius ) settled in the provinces of Lusitania and Carthaginensis, and the Siling Vandals took possession of Baetica. It was at this point that the natives who had resisted in cities and fortresses finally submitted to the barbarians, although some continued to act independently against the newcomers.
The Suebian kingdom (409-585)
As for the area that interests us, Gallaecia, as we have seen, it was divided between the Suebi and the Asdingi Vandals. The latter settled in the Conventus Asturum, so we must assume that its capital was Asturica, while the Suebi seized the part bordering the Atlantic (Conventus Lucensis and Conventus Bracarensis), establishing their capital at Bracara Augusta (Braga). The Suebi signed a treaty or foedus with the emperor in 410, being recognized as a federated kingdom and ally of Rome. It is said that for this reason it was the first kingdom in Europe. In 416, the Roman emperor Honorius, with the help of the Visigoths, recovered all of Hispania for the Empire, except for Gallaecia. The Visigoths, for their part, returned to Gaul.
Relations between the Suebi and the Vandals must not have been very good, because in 419 a war broke out between them, ending with a victory for the Suebi and their Roman allies at the Battle of the Nervasos Mountains. The exact location of these mountains is unknown, although some historians place them in El Bierzo or the Arbas area (both locations in León). As a result of the battle, the Vandals retreated to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, from where they would go on to found a significant kingdom in North Africa.
With the Vandals and Alans gone, only the Suebi remained on the Iberian Peninsula as representatives of the barbarian peoples, although they were confined to the northwest. When the Vandals fled, they also seized Asturia, so their territory coincided with the Roman province of Gallaecia, but they kept their capital in Bracara instead of moving it to Asturica. Although modern history books usually refer to the natives as "Hispano-Romans", Hydatius refers to them as "Gallaeci ," and he also says that Astorga was a city of Gallaecia, since Roman administrative structures were still fully in place.
For decades, the Gallaeci (or Gallaecians, a term used in some sources) continued to clash with the Suebi. The political conflict was compounded by religious tensions, as the barbarians were pagans and the natives Catholic. However, through the mediation of Hydatius and imperial officials, a peace treaty was finally signed in 431. Shortly afterward, the Suebi took advantage of imperial weakness and the absence of competitors to break their treaty with Rome and spread throughout the western Iberian Peninsula, reaching Mérida and Seville. Their king, Rechiar (448-456), converted to Catholicism, but he had to contend with the Visigoths, who once again invaded Hispania in support of the Empire. The two armies clashed in the so-called Battle of the Órbigo (456), which, according to Hydatius, took place “twelve miles from the city of Astorga, by the river called Úrbico”. Since the road from Asturica to Legio passed through there, it is reasonable to assume that the battle took place in the vicinity of Hospital or Puente de Órbigo, near the strategic Roman bridge that allowed passage over the river. The Visigoths were victorious, capturing and sacking Asturica and even Braga, the Suebian capital, where they murdered its king. Instead of seizing the territory, they reduced the Suebian kingdom to the borders of the province of Gallecia , with the Conventus Asturum included.
In that same year, 456, Hydatius recounts that some four hundred Heruli arrived on the Iberian Peninsula in seven ships. The Heruli were a people of Scandinavian origin who, among other things, practiced piracy in the North Sea and the English Channel. They landed on the coast of Lugo, but were repelled by the local population, so on their return voyage they raided the Cantabrian coast. This expedition would be a clear precedent for the Viking and Norman attacks that occurred centuries later and almost regularly against the Asturian-Leonese kingdom.
With the Visigothic invasion of 456, Hispania was divided into two kingdoms of very unequal size: the Suebian kingdom of Gallaecia , and the Visigothic kingdom in the rest of the Peninsula and in southern France. The Goths sacked Astorga in 459, although they were defeated in the siege of Coviacense. castrum ” (identified with Coyanza , that is, Valencia de Don Juan). Unfortunately, we lack sources to know the fate of the Suebian kingdom, because although Hydatius speaks of civil wars and disorders after the Visigothic attack, his Chronicon concludes in the year 469.
We have a document from the mid-6th century called the Suebian Parochial, which details the ecclesiastical dioceses that made up the kingdom. Among them is the diocese or see " Asturiensem, " encompassing, among other places, Astórica (Astorga), Legio , and Bérgido . This confirms that the eastern border of the Suebi must have been on the Esla or the Cea rivers, as in pre-Roman and Imperial times. Furthermore, there is also a famous Suebian coin minted in Legio , bearing the inscription "Leones moneta clara," which indicates that the Latin name had already evolved into its current form. This is a very natural process considering that " Legio " and its variant " Legioe " were not pronounced with the "j" sound (/x/) in Classical Latin, but rather " Leguio " and " Leguione ," which would have facilitated its transformation into " Leione ," "Leone," and finally, "León." Furthermore, the Suebian Parochial mentions the place " Pesicoe " in the Asturian diocese, easily associated with the Pesicos, a transmontane Asturian tribe cited in classical sources, and which is further proof that Asturias still existed north and south of the Cantabrian Mountains during the Suebian period. In that same document, places we have been unable to identify are mentioned, such as Petra Speranti , Comanea or Comanca (perhaps Coyanza ?), and Maurellos. superiorum et inferiorum (which some have wanted to identify with Maragatería), Senvire or Senimure (Zamora?) and Francellos or Fraucelos.
Between 469 and 560, but most likely at the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th century, groups of British Celts arrived in the northwest, perhaps as invaders or mercenaries. They probably dispersed throughout the Suebian kingdom, although they were particularly concentrated between Mondoñedo and Ferrol. By the end of the 6th century, we know they had their own bishop, Maeloc, who, in addition to having a territorial diocese (present-day Bretoña ), may have been responsible for all the British Celts of Gallaecia, since thanks to the Suebian Parochial we know that there were also "Brits" in Asturias, or perhaps throughout Asturias, as the expression used ("in Asturiis ," in the plural) leaves room for doubt.
Despite being the first Germanic kingdom in Hispania, the Suebi did not have complete control over the territories they theoretically dominated, because rebellions by the Gallaecians were constant in the cities, and they were often forced to make peace with them. Furthermore, in 572, their king Miro had to confront the independent Ruccones or Runcones, a people about whom we only know that they inhabited the Cantabrian Mountains, that is, in the heart of the Suebian kingdom. Saint Isidore, in his "Historia Gothorum", vaguely links these Ruccones to the Astures, which is why some historians have identified them with the Luggones tribe .
In this historical period, despite the growing influence of Christianity, many traces of paganism still persisted. We have the testimony of Martin of Braga, the so-called "Apostle of the Suebi," who around the year 575 complained in a letter to Bishop Polemius of Astorga about the pagan practices of "the country folk, who, still held captive by the ancient superstitions of the pagans, give more worship to demons than to God". He then lists superstitions and rites that were common throughout Gallaecia :
“And how is it that some of you, who have renounced the devil and his angels, his cults, and his evil works, now return to the devil's worship? For lighting candles by stones, trees, springs, and crossroads—what else is that but devil worship? Observing divination and omens, as well as the days of idols—what else is that but devil worship? Observing the Vulcanian and Kalends days, adorning tables, placing laurel wreaths, observing the foot, pouring food and wine on the hearth fire, throwing bread into the fountain—what else is that but devil worship? When women invoke Minerva while weaving their fabrics, observe the day of Venus at weddings, and consider the day on which a journey is made—what else is that but devil worship? When enchanting herbs for spells and invoking the names of demons with incantations—what else is that but The worship of the devil? And many other things too numerous to mention. Behold, after having renounced the devil, you do all these things after your baptism, and returning to the worship of demons and the evil works of idols, you have broken your word and have violated the covenant you made with God. You have cast aside the sign of the cross, which you received at baptism, and you are attentive to other signs of the devil through little birds, sneezing, and many other things.”
All of this demonstrates that Christianity was barely taking root in rural areas. Add to this the fact that Priscillianism enjoyed great popularity in Asturica and Gallaecia , and it was clear that much apostolic work still lay ahead.
The Suebian kingdom, despite its vicissitudes, resisted until 585, when it was definitively invaded by the Visigoths. Despite its 176 years of existence, it is often not even mentioned in Spanish history books because, being relegated to the northwest, it did not influence events in the rest of Hispania. In any case, it is yet another example of how centralism is not usually limited to the economic or political sphere, but is also reflected in historiography. The territories of this kingdom foreshadow what, several centuries later, would become the core of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom. This was the view much later of Lucas de Tuy, who, in his " Chronicle," described it. Mundi (13th century), in narrating the Muslim invasion of 711, states that "they subjugated the city of León through famine, which had once been the capital of the Suebian kingdom." We do not know from what source he obtained such a statement, although he undoubtedly intended to extol the city of León in the past as a precursor to the kingdom that would later bear its name.
The Visigothic Kingdom (585-711).
The Visigoths, often known simply as "Goths" in Hispania, were one of the most powerful Germanic peoples. Their name means "Goths of the West," and they had threatened the imperial borders since the 3rd century, although they allied themselves with Rome in the 4th century. Pressured by the Huns, they obtained permission to settle in the easternmost part of the Empire, but they rebelled on several occasions. After the division between East and West, the Visigothic king Alaric ravaged both empires and even sacked Rome itself in 410. His successor, Ataulf, led his troops into Gaul and settled in central and southern France, establishing Toulouse as his capital. In 415, the Visigoths crossed the Pyrenees, theoretically allied with Rome, and quickly defeated the Alans and Vandals, forcing them to cross the Strait of Gibraltar into North Africa.
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At the beginning of the 6th century, the Visigoths were defeated by th Franks, the Germanic people who would eventually give their name to the neighboring country of France. The Visigoths were forced to abandon Gaul, except for the region of Septimania, bordering the Mediterranean, which remained in their hands until the Muslim invasion of 711. Thus, their territory was basically limited to the Iberian Peninsula, the Hispania of imperial times. Gallaecia (the northwestern peninsula of the Suebian kingdom) and the far north remained outside their control, leading to continuous rebellions by the Astures, Cantabrians, and Basques. They also lost the Balearic Islands and a large part of the Levant to a Byzantine invasion in the mid-6th century. The Visigoths settled primarily in the center of the Peninsula and the Northern Plateau: although they established their capital in Toledo, most of their population lived in the "Campi Gothorum” (the “Gothic Fields”), correspond to the "Tierra de Campos" region. The fact that its capital was Toledo had a great influence on its future, since, having been the head of Christian Hispania, it became a symbol for the Kingdom of León during the so-called “Reconquista”. The city on the Tagus River was a primary objective for the Leonese kings, but it was not until the time of Alfonso VI that they managed to conquer it.
The Visigothic kingdom was always plagued by a great weakness due to civil wars, but its king, Leovigild, was able to annex the Suebian kingdom in 585 and gradually recover the territories occupied by the Byzantines. As with the previous barbarian peoples, the Visigoths were a tiny minority compared to the native population of Hispania (around 150,000-200,000 Visigoths compared to six to nine million Hispanians), so they focused their efforts on controlling the cities as centers of power. They considered themselves a social, almost racial, elite, and therefore mixed marriages with the local population were prohibited. Thus, there were two different societies in Hispania: the Visigothic (Arian, elitist, with legal and fiscal privileges, and which also held power), and the native (Catholic, without access to public office, with heavy tax burdens, and with different legislation). These differences gradually diminished, until Leovigild legislated granting equality between "Romans" and "Goths".
One of the great advances of the Visigothic kingdom, which would have a profound impact on the future Kingdom of León, was the promulgation of the "Liber Iudiciorum" (Book of Judges) in 654 by King Recceswinth. This legal corpus unified the laws for all of Hispania, repealing all previous laws that discriminated between natives and Visigoths, and merging Roman and Germanic law. The book in which these laws were compiled received many names throughout its history: "Liber Iudicum", "Fuero Juzgo", "Liber Gothorum", "Libro Juzgo de León", or simply "Libro de León" ("The Book of Leon"). The latter two names are due to the fact that it was revived as the basic legislation of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom in the 9th century, and continued to function as such throughout the existence of the Kingdom of León, even after its union with Castile in 1230, as we shall see. It originally consisted of twelve books subdivided into fifty-four titles and five hundred and seventy-eight laws dealing with inheritances, marriage, donations, crimes and offenses of all kinds, the army, etc.
After the conquest of the Suebian kingdom, the Visigoths focused their control of Asturia from the cities of Astorica (Astorga), Leione (León), and Bergio (Cacabelos), although Semure (Zamora), Senabria (Puebla de Sanabria, Zamora), Calapa ( Calabor , Zamora), Georres (Barco de Valdeorras, Orense), and Pésicos (location undetermined, but probably in Asturias and Laciana) must also have stood out, since in all these towns coins were minted, although surely in some of them it was done for military needs, to pay the troops that participated in the campaigns against the Astures .
The Visigoths maintained the administrative division of the Suebian kingdom (which they had inherited from the Roman Empire), that is, they respected the province of Gallaecia , composed of the different legal districts (Asturiense, Bracarense, and Lucense). According to the Albeldense Chronicle and the Rotense Chronicle, the Visigothic kings customarily handed over the government of Gallaecia to the heir to the throne, a practice that would continue much later, during the Kingdom of León. These chronicles recount that King Egica gave his son Witiza the " regnum Suevorum ", that is, Gallaecia , which he ruled from Tuy. With this responsibility, the future Visigothic king gained experience in both administrative and military matters, because Gallaecia remained a rebellious region.
At the head of each province was a duke, whose functions were primarily military, although they would eventually also acquire fiscal and judicial powers. We know that the father of Saint Fructuosus was duke of Gallaecia around the year 630, and that he held significant possessions in El Bierzo. The so-called Duchy of Asturia eventually separated from the province of Gallaecia, established between 653 and 683, and whose capital, as one might expect, was Astorga, which is also the only episcopal see in all of Asturias for which we have records during this period. In the Cosmography of the Anonymous of Ravenna (ca. 670), a review of the main regions of Hispania is given, stating that it was divided into eight provinces, which coincides with the acts of the Thirteenth Council of Toledo, and mentions Asturia as separate from Calletia or Gallaecia. Among the cities this source highlights Gemina (using this name instead of Legio), Bergidon, Asturica, and Luco Astorum.
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We do not know the titles and functions of local officials, either in the cities or in the hill forts and villages. Many of the hill forts continued to function as population centers, although others were gradually abandoned. There is even the possibility that the ancient Legio was downgraded from a city to a hill fort, since the "Vita Fructuosi " (a biography of Saint Fructuosus written by Valerius of Bierzo) mentions that a disciple of the saint founded a magnificent monastery in the "castrum Leonis," although this could refer to the population center of Puente Castro, right next to the city. The term "territorium bergidense" is also mentioned for the first time in that work, an unequivocal sign that the hill fort was already beginning to give its name to the region of El Bierzo.
The only one who tells us anything about local administration is Saint Isidore of Seville (556-636), who was the greatest intellectual figure of his time, not only in the Iberian Peninsula but in all of Europe. To understand his influence, it suffices to know that copies of his works were made in Ireland in 640, just four years after his death. This Sevillian saint would also become very important for the Kingdom of León over the centuries, both for his works and for his remains, which were transferred with great pomp from Seville to the city of León in the 11th century, thus giving rise to the Basilica of Saint Isidore of León.
Now, Saint Isidore reveals in his Etymologies that rural life revolved around the “conventus vicinorum” or “ rusticorum”. These assemblies regulated community life, communal property, land boundaries, the distribution of communal pastures, compensation for damage caused to crops by livestock, and so on, making them a clear precedent for the municipal system from which the Leonese neighborhood councils are descended. This "conventus" was convened by the sound of a horn or trumpet and met at crossroads, in the streets of a village, or in the marketplaces. This system likely had its roots in the pre-Roman era, as until then the Astures only knew communal land ownership. Despite the privatizations introduced by the Empire, the vast majority of Asturian territory continued to be communal, as is still the case in many villages in León today.
Saint Isidore speaks of the Astures on several occasions. In Book IX of his "Etymologies", he repeats that they take their name from the Astura River, thus confirming that the situation had not changed since before the arrival of the Romans, and that there were still Astures on both sides of the Cantabrian Mountains. He also states elsewhere that regions are part of provinces, and gives Cantabria and Asturias as examples of Gallaecia. Furthermore, in his "History of Kingdoms Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum" he mentions the Astures. The "Historia Gothorum" states that a rebellion of the Astures and Ruccones occurred at the beginning of Sisebut's reign, in 612. We know that there had been another one shortly before, thanks to a coin minted by Gundemar (610-612) in Pesicos, so it seems that military campaigns from the central plateau against the north were quite frequent. The last Asturian rebellion of which we have record was during the reign of Wamba (672-680).
The landscape of Asturias Augustan (or Cismontane, if you prefer, although this name never appears in the sources) was very different from what we are used to. For example, the entire Páramo plateau and much of the mountainous region were covered by large forests. But over the centuries, these forests gradually disappeared due to human activity, as they were cleared to dedicate the land to agriculture and livestock farming. This livestock farming, moreover, was largely transhumant, so it is possible that flocks were already traveling along the Silver Route (Vía de la Plata) in winter in search of pastures in Extremadura. Another interesting fact that is not often considered is that wild animals roamed freely, with bears and wolves present in many more areas and regions than they are today, and they represented a very real danger to the inhabitants of the scattered population centers of the time.
In religious matters, the Visigoths attempted to impose Arianism against Catholicism, but eventually had to acknowledge their failure. In 589, King Reccared, son and successor of Leovigild, converted to Catholicism and established it as the official religion of the kingdom. This marked a turning point for the worse for the Jewish communities established in Hispania. While the Arians had tolerated them, the Catholic Visigothic kings began to persecute and oppress them in various ways, confiscating their property, imposing arbitrary taxes, prohibiting mixed marriages, and so on. The "Liber Iudiciorum " (Book of Judgments) further exacerbated the situation, as it directly forbade Jews from practicing their religion under penalty of death at the stake. It is no wonder that some reluctantly converted to Christianity, nor that the rest welcomed the Muslim invaders in 711 with open arms.
Priscillianism, despite official persecution by the Church, still existed at the end of the 7th century. It seems that this heresy, which advocated withdrawal from the world, lies at the root of the ascetic and monastic movement that characterized religious life in Gallaecia in the 7th century, whose most important figures were the Bierzo monks Fructuosus and Valerius. They were responsible for the coining of the expression "the Bierzo Thebaid," since the profusion of monasteries and hermitages they founded was so great that it could be compared to that of Egyptian Thebes in the 4th century. The paradisiacal mountainous corners of El Bierzo perfectly suited their idea of withdrawing from the world and were far more pleasant than the deserts of Egypt.
Saint Fructuosus of Bierzo ( † 665) was the son of a Visigothic nobleman who bequeathed him his extensive holdings in El Bierzo. In this region, he founded the monasteries of Compludo, San Pedro de Montes, and San Fiz do Seo, which were family monasteries with mixed communities of men and women, a novelty in Gallaecia , probably due to the persistence of pre-Roman social structures. Saint Valerius of Bierzo, who in his works defines himself as " Asturiensis Provincia indigena " ("native of the Asturian province"), was a disciple of Fructuosus and continued his work, notably for the books he wrote related to monastic life.
In addition to monasteries, cave hermitages began to proliferate in caves and secluded places. This trend would have a significant impact in the future, producing famous hermits in later periods, such as Saint Genadius and Saint Froilan.
As for paganism, it remained very present in Gallaecia under Visigothic rule. In the 7th century, Valerius of Bierzo recounts in his work "Replicatio" how some Christians in the Asturica region destroyed "temples consecrated to demons, according to pagan rites". Pagan practices continued to exist in the rural world, and although the Church managed to eradicate many of them, labeling them witchcraft, it adapted others, Christianizing them, while simply turning a blind eye to a few. Thus, today we still preserve traditions such as bonfires at the solstices (Saint John's Day and Epiphany), carnivals, and so on. And many minor deities, such as nymphs and nature spirits, endured in legends and popular mythology, transformed into "xanas", "mouros" and "mouras", "trasgos", "ñuberos", "cuélebres", "vieyas", and so forth.
It is clear that the Suebi and Visigoths brought their respective languages with them, but their influence on the Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula was only felt at the lexical level, giving words to Spanish like "guerra" (war), "yelmo" (helmet), "espuela" (spur), "tregua" (truce), etc. It is estimated that there are around three hundred words of Germanic origin in modern Spanish, almost always linked to the military. In any case, there are many personal names with this origin (Gonzalo, Ricardo, Álvaro, Rodrigo, Elvira, etc.), and, to give a more concrete example, almost all the Asturian-Leonese kings had Germanic names (Alfonso, Fernando, Fruela, etc.). There are also many towns and villages in León whose names have this origin, with some 2,400 Germanic place names in Spain. Most are concentrated in the northwest of the peninsula, undoubtedly due to Suebian influence in Gallaecia, and only northern Catalonia has a similar density. Some examples of place names of Germanic origin in the province of León are Sabero, Gualtares, Guímara, Villabalter, Villasinte, Villacontilde , etc.
The Suebi and Visigoths were already using Vulgar Latin long before their arrival in Hispania, which facilitated communication with the Hispano-Romans, who gradually abandoned their native languages. Unfortunately, no books in Gothic survive, as Reccared ordered them all burned on suspicion of Arianism. Those that escaped this fate were erased for reuse in later periods, since parchment was an expensive and complex writing material to produce.
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